## Friday, October 17, 2014

### Study group: witness-indistinguishable proofs (2014-10-16)

Zero-knowledge (ZK) proofs are a fairly common object in cryptography. What's less common knowledge: zero-knowledge does not compose well. For example, for every interactive ZK prover/verifier (P,V), you can build another pair $(\overline P, \overline V)$ that is still a ZK proof of the same language but running two prover/verifier instances in parallel leaks a witness.

Back in the early days of ZK, Feige and Shamir came up with an alternative notion called witness indistinguishability (WI). This says that (for some NP language) if $v, w$ are two witnesses to a statement $x$ then a proof using $v$ is indistinguishable from one using $w$. For some languages like "discrete logarithms" this property holds trivially but once there are several witnesses it becomes interesting. For example, a WI proof of a witness to a Pedersen commitment $G^x H^r$ is guaranteed not to reveal $x$, just like the original commitment itself. And WI is closed under composition. In fact, you can do a strong (and composable) form of WI that is information-theoretic and holds even if the verifier knows the witnesses in question, i.e. the proof is statistically independent of the witness.

The second topic we looked at are ZAPs. No-one seems to know what ZAP stands for but it's a two-round WI proof in the plain model (plain-ZK would require at least 3 rounds). The idea: start with a "common random string"-model non-interactive ZK scheme. In round 1, the verifier picks a lot of random strings $r_1, \ldots, r_k$. In round 2, the prover picks one random $r$ and sets $c_i = r_i \oplus r$ to get $k$ different CRS values. The prover then sends a CRS-NIZK proof for each of these values; the verifier accepts if all of them verify. An argument on the probability of a proof for a false statement going through on a random CRS then says that the soundness error of this construction is negligible in $k$.

At CRYPTO '03, Barak et al. further showed how to derandomise ZAPs.

Our final application is a 3-round OT scheme. To transfer a bit, verifier picks an RSA modulus $N = pq$. The prover sends a random string $r$  and the verifier replies with two random elements $y_0, y_1$ and a ZAP  w.r.t. $r$ that at least one is a quadratic residue $mod N$. The prover then picks two random $x_0, x_1$ and sends $y_0^{b_0} \cdot x_0^2$ and $y_1^{b_1} \cdot x_1^2$. The verifier can recover one bit by checking which of the two values is not a quadratic residue. To OT a whole bitstring, this protocol can be done for all bits in parallel. This is where it is important that the ZAP (which is WI) still works under concurrent composition.